Very simple colour-coded map of the 4 main Roman roads in Britain.

A very large, detailed map of the Roman roads in Britain.

Basic small map of the principal roads (unlabelled) in the Empire.

The so-called Peutinger Table is a medieval copy of an ancient Roman road map of the Roman empire. The map is greatly squashed down and elongated so that it could fit on to a long roll. Can you spot the names of town and cities? Britain is shown in Part I, Rome in Part VI, and Pompeii in Part VII.

Simple, illustrated section on how a Romans road was actually built.

Simple, solid information on Roman roads and construction (with examples from Shropshire, England).

The Hollywood image of soldiers on chariots rushing along the roads and wheel ruts caused by centuries of traffic... forget it! Everyone should read this excellent website which gives the known or likely facts about Roman roads and debunks the myths.

Good entry-level website.

The planning, surveying and construction of Roman roads, with links to UK county maps showing Roman roads.

Detailed article from Oct 2002 British Archaeology magazine on Roman road-building. The article, for older surfers, higlights the fact that the roads are not quite as regular in line and construction as we sometimes like to believe.

A video fly-over of "Wade's Causeway" - a well-preserved Roman road on Wheeldale Moor, 10 miles north of Pickering in the North Yorkshire Moors National Park.

In addition: photo 1; and photo 2.

As illustrated on p.57 of CLC Bk III.

Watling Street was one of the first major Roman roads, built in the mid-1st century A.D. not long after the invasion of Britain. It ran from Richborough (Rutupiae) in Kent, via London to the Shropshire fort at Wroxeter (Viroconium) and from there into Wales.
Much of the road is still in use today: from a major road (including parts of the M1, A2 and A5)...to a quiet lane and an almost overgrown track.

Here's a map showing the route of Watling Street.

Ermine Street ran from London to York (Eboracum), is now largely covered by the modern A10 road. It goes through towns (here Royston) and countryside (pictured here between Cheshunt & Ware).

Just imagine... Ermine Street once looked like this!

This Roman road, the only one in Britain to retain its original Latin name, ran from Exeter (Isca Dumnoniorum) NE past Bath (Aquae Sulis), Cirencester (Corinium Dobunnorum), and Leicester (Ratae Coritanorum) to Lincoln (Lindum).
Much of the Roman road is now under A-roads and B-road, such as this section in Gloucestershire, but some parts are overgrown.

The groma was used as a sighting device for roads, aqueducts and buildings. The weights on the end of each point of the crossbar sights were to make sure that the groma was kept perpendicular to the ground.

The chorobate was used to ensure a construction was level - a bit like a modern "spirit-level" without the bubble. This tool was over 10ft. long. Water poured into the long groove running down the middle of the top of the chorobate indicated when it was "level".

The Romans used a device called a hodometer ("road-measurer") to measure distances. An elaborate gear assembly caused a rounded pebble to fall into a metal bowl after each mile.
The cart also had special wheels, 4 feet in diameter and 12.5 feet in circumference. 400 revolutions made a Roman mile.

Wonderfully ornate rowing-boat. Oversized anchor though!
In the Bardo Museum in Tunis.

A river-boat carrying barrels of wine. It would have floated downstream and then been rowed back up.

This sculpture was found at Neumagen on the River Moselle in Germany; it was a grave-monument to a Roman wine dealer of c.220 AD. Now in the Rheinische Landesmuseum in nearby Trier.

A real example of such a vessel has also been found!

And at Neumagen they've built a terrific replica boat!

A river-boat being loaded with sacks of corn, one of which is being poured out into a measuring barrel to check it contains the correct quantity. The boat is called the Isis Giminiana. Isis was a very common name for ships in antiquity, since the Egyptian fertility goddess, Isis, also protected sailors.
Fresco from Ostia; now in the Vatican Museum.
As featured on p.51 of CLC Bk.IV.

Small cargo boat with mast stowed.

In the Bardo Museum, Tunis.

Unloading sacks (of grain?) from a sea-going ship to a river boat.
Mosaic in-situ in the ruins of the Roman port of Ostia, near Rome; as seen on Stage 31's title-page.

In situ in the Piazzale delle Corporazioni, ancient Ostia.

In situ in the Piazzale delle Corporazioni, ancient Ostia.

In situ in the Piazzale delle Corporazioni, ancient Ostia.

Modelled on the Neumagen sculpture - see link above - docked at Neumagen in Germany.

Medium sized Roman merchant ship of the end of the third century AD. Illustration by John Pittaway.

Known as the "Blackfriars Ship 1", remains of this cargo vessel - which had sailed at sea - was found in London. Dating to 150 AD.
More info here.

Reconstruction of the merchant ship mosaic featured on p.69 of CLC BkIII.

Super webpage on Roman cargo boats by Axel Nelson. His Norwegian text is followed by an English translation.

Report on a great discovery. River barges floated downstream with the current... and then rowed back upstream!

Report on finds from the excavations at the "underwater Pompeii": the site of 30 Roman cargo ships buried at Pisa in Italy.

The liburnica or liburnia which was a relatively small warship with two banks of oars (thus a type of bireme) that was renowned for its speed and agility. Developed by the Liburnians (from modern Croatia), it was adopted by the Roman navy from the time of Augustus. These ships are depicted on Trajan's Column in Rome (scroll down to scene 34).
The famous wall-paintings of biremes from the House of the Vettii in Pompeii show biremes, but there is not sufficient detail to specify the type of bireme.

A quadrireme was a large Roman warship, the exact form of which is unknown, but which was probably fitted with either a single bank of oars with 4 men at each oar, or two banks of oars, one above each other with 2 men at each oar - either system providing 4 men close to each other - and so satisfying its designation as a quadrireme or a "4er". (The systematic reckoning that there were four banks of oars, following from the known use of two banks in biremes and three banks in triremes, however, can no longer be applied on practical grounds).
This ship was a development of the highly succesful Classical Greek trireme, a modern reconstruction of which has dispelled any doubts that such awkward-looking ships (in this case with 3 banks of oars; 1 man at each oar) could in fact be rowed.

In AD79 there were two imperial fleets at the ready: one based at Ravenna on the northern Adriatic coast of Italy, and the other based at Misenum in the Bay of Naples on the west coast.

This website gives details, known from inscriptions, of the boats in the fleets.

Misenum, located at the end of a cape projecting out into the Bay of Naples, was the largest base of the Roman navy during the early empire. The only remains left of the fleet's presence at Misenum are those of a massive, underground cistern (today known as the piscina mirabilis) which once held the fresh drinking water needed for the thousands of sailors. The pillars supported the cistern's ceiling, and would have been submerged by the water that poured into the cistern from an aqueduct.

This map of the Bay of Naples locates Misenum and the other main sites (scroll down to view).

An Italian website, but no translation is necessary to wonder at the fantastic images of Roman ships collected here.

Fantastic website with information and reconstructions. Search by type and period of ship.

This site shows a collection of images and reconstructions of Roman vehicles.

Certain small carts could be pulled by hand - either by slaves or owners who couldn't afford mules (or even more expensive oxen or horses). Here's a similar hand-cart.

The reconstructions were made for the TV series "Rome" based on Roman frescoes, mosaics, and sculpture.

The remains of a 2-wheeled Roman, horse-drawn cart from the House of Menander in Pompeii, buried in the eruption of AD79.
The 1.6 meter-diameter iron rings that edged the wheels, parts of the axle/wheel-bearings and parts of the payload-box, are the only visible remains. The four "pillars" on which the cart appears to be resting are unremoved volcanic stone that covered the city in the eruption.
The remains have now been further excavated and amalgamated into this reconstruction which today sits in the stables of the House of Menander.

Two horses pulling a cart with spoked wheels.

In the Bardo Museum, Tunis, Tunisia.

Another simple cart; note the solid wheels made of planks joined together and sawn into a circle. In the villa at Piazza Armerina in Sicily.

Reconstruction of a Roman goods wagon; the open sides suggest a hay-wagon or goods carried in sacks, jars or boxes. Note the pivoting front-axle which makes turning easier.

The Roman equivalent of our tanker! Used for fresh water or wine. Here's a modern recreation of this type of vehicle but, while it's fine for a prop for the TV series "Rome", the far-back position of the barrel over just two wheels (instead of 4) make it impractical to use.

This light, 2-wheeled passenger carriage - known as a trap in English - is pulled by two mules (cross between horse and donkey), passing a milestone reading LIIII - meaning 4 Leagues (about 5 modern miles) to Trier.

This painted sculpture is a copy of a Roman monument to cloth merchants in the town of Igel in Germany.

As shown on p.67 of CLC BkIII.

Reconstruction of a 2-wheeled light carriage in the Hungarian National Museum, based on a sculpture in the same museum.

The main, all-wooden body of this carriage is suspended on ropes or leather straps above the wheels to make for smoother ride.
This reconstruction is in Romano-Germanic Museum in Cologne, Germany.

This simple reconstruction shows how the sides of some carriages were made of fabric or leather.

Drawing of a relief-sculpture depicting an open-sided carriage. In the National Museum of Rome at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.

and could this be a real Roman returning...? Great atmospheric photo!

Clip from the HBO/BBC TV series "Rome" showing Caesar entering Rome in triumph in his splendid triumphal chariot.

Emperor Marcus Aurelius riding in his large, triumphal 4-horse chariot (quadriga). He's about to go through a triumphal arch, and is being crowned by Victory.
Relief from a Triumphal Arch in Rome (no longer in existence) built to celebrate Marcus Aurelius' triumph in in 176 AD. This relief is now in the Capitoline Museum.

Fictitious, but rather splendid, reconstruction of a triumphal chariot.

Detail of a painting entitled "Triumph of Aemilius Paulus" (celebrating his victory at the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC.)by French artist Carle Vernet from 1789. You can see the full painting here.

In the New York Metropolitan Museum of Art

For the wealthy: a chair - this image is of an elaborate 2-person sella - that was carried on the shoulders of slaves; it was usually enclosed but could sometimes be simply open.
Another more luxurious mode of transport for important Romans was the portable couch known as a lectica, known in English as a "litter".

The different types of animals that carry or pull humans along.

Wheels, axles and more. Excellent, comprehensive review of how they were made and worked in Roman times.

It's actually called a hipposandal...and it's in the British Museum.

Leather Roman shoes excavated in London. Walking was the most common method of transport in Roman England.
In the Museum of London .

You can easily make out the last line:
M P VIII
standing for
Mille Passus 8 or
8 miles away.
Found in situ, eight miles away from the Roman fort at Kanovium in north Wales; now in the British Museum.