Domitian's Imperial Court

The ancient concept of the imperial court was the place where the emperor was in residence, be it in Rome or on campaign, and was called the "Palatium" from the association of the emperor with the royal residence on the Palatine Hill (Dio 53.16.5-6). The members of the court (senators, equestrians, freedmen and others) constituted a decision making body that stood as a rival to the Senate. By remaining outside Rome, unlike his father, at his villa at Alba and being frequently on campaign Domitian confirmed the unspoken truth that the emperor and not the Senate ruled the Roman world. Although Domitian did use the Senate to issue an occasional senatus consultum they were generally ignored.

The villa at Alba, now occupied by the papal Castel Gandolfo, covered a huge area and included baths, a theater and a circus. Tacitus termed the villa as the "Alban fortress" (Agr. 45). The villa was the scene where Domitian conducted his affair with Domitia Longia (Dio 65.3.4), was the meeting place of Domitian's privy council (where Cornelia, the chief Vestal was tried) and where the annual games celebrating Minerva were held (Dom. 4; Dio 67.1.2).

Imperial advisors were an important part of the court and Domitian consulted them on critical matters before a decision was made. Among the twenty men that are known to have been consulted on a regular basis were Nerva and Trajan and both were awarded consulships. The praetorian prefect was a powerful figure at court and a position the Flavians kept in the family. Titus served his father and appointed relatives to the position. Domitian changed his prefects with frequency and never awarded the post to a family member after "promoting" L. Julius Ursus, a relative whom Titus had appointed.[1]

A small army of freedmen worked in the palace in two general departments: domestic matters of the palace and administrative matters dealing with issues of state. A vast number of posts needed to be filled, from those who took charge of the emperor's white robe on triumphal occasions to those in charge of departments of state. A career could be made serving the emperor. For example, one freedman named Bucolas began as court taster and rose to supervise the imperial domestic budget.[2] They were also used a political agents. Imperial freedmen were sent to Britain to urge Agricola to resign his post (Agr. 40, 41) and were certainly used as spies. It was necessary to be on good terms with at least one freedman to have access to Domitian, as Martial demonstrated when asking a freedman to show one of his poems to the emperor (Mart. 5.6). Upon his ascension Domitian confirmed most of the senators and equestrians in the positions Titus had granted them, but the freedmen were dismissed without exception.

Suetonius and Dio inform us that shortly after Domitian became emperor Domitia was divorced for committing adultery (Dom. 3) with an actor named Paris. Neither historian agrees on the facts but the key events are: that Domitia was divorced, Paris was killed by Domitian in the street (Dio 67.3.1) and Domitian lived with his niece Julia (Dio 67.3.2) until he could no longer bear being separated from Domitia and married her again. However, he maintained his liaison with Julia and, when she became pregnant, forced her to have an abortion from which she died.

Julia's husband, Titus Flavius Sabinus IV (son of Sabinus III), was executed not long after his consulship (in 82) with Domitian. He had been the choice of Domitian, not a leftover of Titus. The reason given was that Sabinus was mistakenly announced as "imperator" instead of "consul" at the consular election and because he was heir apparent it was enough for Domitian to execute him (Dom. 10). However, Sabinus was executed after his consulship which negates the urgency of killing him after being mistakenly saluted emperor. That political necessity was behind the execution is proved by the continued presence of Julia at the palace and that she had not demanded her husband be spared. Lack of information makes a conspiracy, real or fabricated, difficult to ascertain.

Domitian was a strongly moralistic emperor, particularly in regard to enforcing Augustus's Lex Julia de adultriss coercendis. The law allows a husband to murder the man who committed adultery but the act must be followed by the divorce of his wife; otherwise the aggrieved husband can be charged with murdering the man with impunity. If Domitian acted as Dio and Suetonius suggest (Dom. 8) he violated the law twice for murdering Paris, then by accepting his wife back. Charges of imperial adultery are rife in ancient history. If Domitian divorced and remarried Domitia it is surprising that ancient sources do not mention the rarity of such action. It is possible that Domitian only exiled his wife, then recalled her out of genuine affection and perhaps to quash rumors he was carrying on an affair with Julia. There were no other rifts in the marriage reported, and Domitian and Domitia had already been married ten years at the time of the scandal.

Julia Titi was about ten years younger than Domitian and had the same nurse, Phyllis, who later mixed the ashes of her two charges after Domitian was assassinated (Dom. 17). Domitian knew his niece from an early age and was possibly fond of her, but he repeatedly refused to marry Julia (Dom. 22). Instead she married her cousin, Sabinus IV, late in Vespasian's reign or early in Titus' when she was given the title Augusta. As a member of the imperial family Julia was living in the palace as she remained close enough to the emperor to intercede on the behalf of L. Julius Ursus (Dio 67.4.2).

Evidence that she did not die from a forced abortion is supplied by one of Martial's epigrams (6.3). Book 6 was published in 90, just after Julia's death. The poem expresses the hope that the empress will bear a son to be named Julius and that Julia (now deified) will watch over him.

The poems surrounding this one (6.2 and 6.4) praise Domitian for upholding the Lex Julia. Martial would never have insulted Domitia by suggesting that she bear a child to be named after and watched over by the woman with whom her husband had carried on a prolonged affair, ending in her death after an abortion was forced on her. Nor would Martial have made the connection of Domitian and the Lex Julia if he had committed adultery with his niece. Such a reference would have placed the poet in grave danger. Therefore, the lurid stories of Julia's affair with her uncle and her death must be treated as vicious rumors.


Commemorative Sestertius of Julia

 

 

Imperial Administration

A problem in assessing the economic measures undertaken by an emperor is that financial data has not survived. The impact of Domitian raising the pay of soldiers (from 300 to 400 denarii) is difficult to assess as the cost cannot be determined in an actual amount. Nor can the cost of conducting a war be adequately measured, along with booty that may offset such expenditures. Nerva was able to make the customary congiarium and a special distribution of corn on his ascension, indicating to the health of the empire’s finances.[3]


The four Minerva reverse types

A sign that Domitian inherited enough wealth is proven by numismatic evidence. In 82, Domitian ordered the aureus and denarius restored to the purity of Augustan levels (7.70 grams in weight for the aureus and 98% purity for the denarius).[4] Like Nero, Domitian took an interest in his coinage and instituted new reverse types of his patron goddess Minerva. These types are familiar to collectors as: (1) Minerva standing right in a fighting attitude (portrayed as a goddess of war), (2) Minerva standing right in a fighting attitude on the prow of a ship with an owl at her feet (portrayed as goddess of the fleet), (3) Minerva standing left holding a spear (portrayed representing peace) and (4) Minerva standing left holding a thunderbolt and spear (portrayed as the agent of Zeus). There exist minor variations of these types and they continued to be struck for the entire reign.

Domitian's portraits have been divided into three types.

The first,developed on coins from 72 - 75, show him with typical Flavian features of thick neck, full face and hooked nose. A pattern of comma shaped locks are arranged along the forehead. Domitian has one physical feature that differs from his father and brother: a protruding upper lip.






Type two, from 75 until his ascension, show him with receding hair at the temples and Domitian resembles Titus more closely.








Type three represents Domitian as emperor. His features are idealized with an upward gaze. The comma shaped locks remain linking his portraits closer to Augustus and Nero than the realism of early Flavian portraits.[5] Many coin portraits depict Domitian with the aegis but the adoption of this device only indicates his association with Minerva rather than suggesting the attributes of a god.

 

 

 

In 85, however, the coinage was debased (the aureus was reduced to 7.50 grams and the denarius to 93% purity). This devaluation coincides with a change in Domitian's policy, noted by Suetonius (Dom. 12) and Dio (67.4.5). A financial crisis had developed and, in order to avoid over expenditure, the confiscation of property began. The same year saw Domitian assume the censorship. This allowed him to dictate morality by enforcing laws such as the Lex Julia and Lex Scantinia thereby enriching the treasury when offenders were found guilty. The debasement of the coinage also occurs at the time of the Dacian War, when it became necessary to have additional funds diverted to the war effort.

Suetonius (Dom. 3) refutes the charge by Pliny the Younger (Panegyricus 50.5) that Domitian was motivated by greed. The financial crisis was probably caused by several factors: the Chattian, British and Dacian wars, the raise in pay for the soldiers and congiarium distributed to the people and the enormous building program. To remedy the situation confiscations began and taxes, such as the fiscus Iudeaicus, were rigorously enforced. The turning point of Domitian's reign occurred in 85, instead of 93 with its so-called "reign of terror." The latter event affected only Tacitus and Pliny the Younger's small group whereas confiscations had been proceeding for eight years.

Domitian enacted a viniculture law that prohibited the planting of new vines in Italy and the cutting of half of existing vineyards in the provinces (Dom. 7). At the time there was a shortage of corn and a glut of cheap wine. This is the only instance when Domitian legislated for the empire and not for a province. Suetonius mentions that the law was not enforced after a poem compared the emperor to a vine eating goat was circulated. (Dom. 14). The intention behind the law was a good one as grain shortages occurred frequently and the population of Asia was expanding, which resulted in a famine in 92-3. The law may have been commemorated with a dupondius with a reserve inscription of ANNONA AVG (RIC-262). Annona is shown holding corn ears with a small figure, naked to the waist, standing next to the goddess. The figure may be meant to represent the Italian farmer and be an encouragement for corn production.[6]

 

 

Building Program

The combination of the fires of 64 and 80 and the civil war had left Rome devastated. Vespasian and Titus, notably with the Flavian Amphitheater began rebuilding, but the majority was carried out by Domitian. Dio (66.24.2) lists a few of the destroyed and damaged building which include: the temple of Serapis (depicted on a denarius, RIC-204), the temple of Isis, the Saepta, the temple of Neptune, the Pantheon, the Baths of Agrippa and the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus (depicted on a denarius, RIC-207). Suetonius claims that Domitian left only his own name on the restored buildings (Dom. 5) and not the builder, but this is not supported by epigraphic evidence. In all, approximately 52 structures were rebuilt, completed or built new, a building program nothing short of massive.[7] This was an opportunity to leave a distinctly Flavian mark on the city of Rome (and further advertise Domitian’s authority) but also served as a cultural renewal of the city.

 

Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus

 

Among the buildings completed were the fourth level of the Flavian Amphitheater, the temple of Vespasian and Titus and the arch of Titus, which was completed by Domitian rather than Trajan, as has been proposed. The assignment to Domitian's reign is supported by his appearance in the attic decoration of the arch depicting the triumph of Vespasian and Titus.[8]

Among the new structures built by Domitian are:

Forum Transitorium or Forum Nervae: The centerpiece of this forum was the temple of Minerva (depicted on a denarius, RIC-206) which was dedicated by Domitian in person. When the damnatio was issued Nerva's name was bestowed on the complex. Because the forum linked together the fori of Julius Caesar, Augustus and Vespasian it became known as the Forum Transitorium. The forum was long and narrow (about 160 x 46m), tailored to fit the space available. Little of the forum has been excavated but a key frieze panel of Minerva punishing Arachne and others depicting imperial virtues show that the sculptures advocated the moralism of the reign.

Arches: According to Suetonius (Dom. 13) Domitian erected numerous arches and gates. The Cancelleria reliefs (depicting Vespasian greeted by Domitian and Domitian leaving for the Sarmatian war of 92) may have decorated one of these arches. Representations of only one triumphal arch exist on coins (RIC-261). [9]

Statues: The famous Equus Domitiani was erected in 89 on a vote of the Senate to commemorate Domitian's German and Dacian wars in the Forum Romanum. This massive equestrian statue was the subject of one of Statius' poems (Silvae 1.1) and was depicted on a sestertius (RIC-414). The statue was destroyed following Domitian’s death and today only the foundation can be seen.

Odeum and Stadium: These buildings were erected for the Ludi Capitoli in the Campus Martius. The Odeum was used for musical performances and the Stadium for athletic contests. Both structures were famous and were regarded as two of Rome's outstanding buildings. (Ammianus Marcellinus 16.10). The form of the stadium is preserved today in the Piazza Navona but little of the Odeum remains.

Temple of Fortuna Redux: The temple was built after the Sarmatian War in the Campus Martius. According to Martial (8.65) the temple was a magnificent structure.

Templum Gentis Flavie: According to Martial (9.3.12; 9.20; 9.34.2; 9.93.6 ) and Suetonius (Dom. 1) Domitian converted the house (in Pomegranate street on the Quirinale hill) where he was born into a temple dedicated to the Flavians. The temple served as a mausoleum for the Flavians, and upon its completion in around 94 the ashes of Vespasian, Titus and Julia Titi were moved there (Mart. 9.1.6-10). The temple was a round structure with a dome (Silvae 4.3.18-19). The decoration were rich, and Martial describes the temple as covered with marble and gold (9.20.1-2). No archaeological remains have been found.

Domus Augustana and Domus Flavia: Domitian's palace was completed in 92. In order to build it the Palatine Hill was leveled and no expense was spared in the construction of this building complex. Martial described it as "You would think that the seven hills were rising up together" (8.36.5). The complex included an official palace (domus Flavia), a private palace on two levels (domus Augustana) and a stadium. The decorations were elaborate and included rich marbles and many sculptures. The peristyle of the domus Augustana was described by Suetonius (Dom. 14) as having walls lined with polished moonstone so the emperor could see behind him.

(C) David A. Wend 1994,1999

Footnotes

1 For biographies of imperial advisors, see Jones, op. cit, pp. 50-59.

2 Jones, ibid., p. 62.

3 Jones, ibid, p. 73. For a detailed analysis of imperial finances,see Syme, Ronald,"The Imperial Finances under Domitian, Nerva and Trajan",Journal of Roman Studies 20,1930,pp.41-55 and Sutherland, C.H.V.,"The State of the Imperial Treasury at the Death of Domitian",Journal of Roman Studies 25,1935,pp. 150-162.

4 Burnett,Andrew , Coinage in the Roman Empire, pp. 48-50.

5 Kleiner, op. cit., pp. 176-7.

6 Jones,ibid,pp.77-78;Mattingly, Harold, Coins of the Roman Empire in the British Museum:Vespasian to Domitian,1966, p. 92.

7 For a complete list of buildings, see Jones, ibid., pp.82 - 85.

8 Kleiner, op. cit., p, 185.

9 For a discussion of the Cancelleria refliefs see Kleiner,op. cit. pp.190-192, and MacKendrick, Paul, The Mute Stones Speak, pp. 300 - 304.